This is a working overview of thymosin alpha 1, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-07-27 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
Thymosin beta-4 is a separate 43-residue peptide that binds actin and participates in cell migration; it shares no sequence similarity with thymosin alpha-1 despite the common family name. Other preparative materials, such as thymosin fraction 5 and thymopoietin, contain distinct mixtures or peptides. The shared thymosin label reflects the tissue of origin used in early purification, not a common structural core. Treating these molecules as interchangeable is a frequent source of confusion in laboratory reports and in popular summaries alike.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acid residues that corresponds to a naturally occurring fragment first isolated from thymus tissue. Its chain is acetylated at the amino terminus, a modification that shields the peptide from rapid cleavage by aminopeptidases. The molecule carries a net negative charge at physiological pH and dissolves freely in water. Researchers classify it as an immune-modulating agent rather than a classical hormone, because it acts on several cell types of both the innate and the adaptive immune system.
The peptide was identified during work in the 1970s on thymosin fraction 5, a partially purified extract of calf thymus. Investigators separated that mixture and characterized individual components, one of which they named thymosin alpha-1. The same compound later received the international nonproprietary name thymalfasin. Commercial material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than by extraction, so synthetic and natural forms share an identical sequence. Naming conventions vary across the literature, and readers should distinguish the alpha-1 peptide from other thymosins that have unrelated sequences and functions.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Biologically, the peptide is studied mainly in the context of immune cell development and regulation. It is produced in the thymus and in several other tissues, and it appears to influence the maturation and activity of T cells and other immune populations. Laboratory work describes effects on cytokine production, on the balance between T cell subsets, and on the function of dendritic cells. Much of this evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, so the extent to which the same pathways operate in humans remains an open question.
Clinical interest has centered on chronic viral hepatitis, on immune restoration in various conditions, and on use as an adjuvant intended to improve responses to vaccines. Trials have reported mixed results, and regulatory status differs sharply between countries; in some places it is a prescription product, while elsewhere it is sold without an approved therapeutic indication. Because published studies vary widely in design, population, and endpoints, comparisons across them are difficult and no single conclusion covers the whole literature.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide of 28 amino acid residues that derives from the amino terminal region of a larger precursor protein known as prothymosin alpha. The peptide carries an acetyl group on its first residue and contains no disulfide bonds or carbohydrate chains. Its sequence is highly conserved across mammalian species, which is one reason laboratories treat it as a molecule with a defined and reproducible structure rather than a variable tissue extract. The name follows an early naming convention for thymus-derived fractions and does not imply that the peptide acts as a hormone in the classical endocrine sense.
The peptide is generated in cells by cleavage of prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein encoded by the PTMA gene. Prothymosin alpha is expressed in many tissues, not only in the thymus, and its functions include nuclear roles in chromatin-related processes. The 28-residue fragment corresponds to the N-terminal portion of that precursor. How the cleavage occurs and how the fragment's concentration is regulated remain open questions; circulating amounts are small and difficult to measure reliably with routine assays.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide first isolated from bovine thymus tissue in the early 1970s during fractionation work aimed at identifying factors that influence T cell development. It belongs to a family of acidic thymic peptides, and the original preparations contained several components that were later separated by chromatography. The compound is now produced synthetically rather than extracted from tissue, which removes batch variability tied to animal sourcing. Researchers describe it as an immunomodulatory peptide because laboratory studies show effects on several cell types of the innate and adaptive immune systems.
Immunological studies connect the peptide to multiple parts of the immune response. It has been reported to engage Toll-like receptor signaling, to promote dendritic cell maturation, and to influence the balance of T helper cell subsets. Changes in natural killer cell activity and in cytokine release appear in cell culture and animal models. These observations describe broad immunomodulatory behavior rather than a single defined receptor target, and the primary molecular interaction has not been settled.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic 28-amino-acid peptide whose sequence was first identified in extracts of bovine thymus tissue during the 1970s. The chain carries an acetyl group on its N-terminal serine. Its acidic residue content is high, which produces strong water solubility and an isoelectric point well below neutrality. Material supplied for laboratory and clinical use is manufactured by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than purified from animal tissue. Different salt forms, such as the acetate, alter the counter-ion content without changing the peptide backbone.
2 I− + 2 Fe3+ → I2 + 2 Fe2+ (E0 = +0.23 V) Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded. Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds.
== History == In 1872, Anders Daae and Christian Horrebow Homann reported an epidemic of pleurodynia occurring in Bamble Municipality in Norway, giving rise to the name "Bamble disease". Subsequent reports, published only in Norwegian, referred to the disease by this name. Niels Ryberg Finsen also described the disease in Iceland in 1874. In 1933, Ejnar Sylvest gave a doctoral thesis describing a Danish outbreak of this disease on Bornholm Island entitled "Bornholm disease-myalgia epidemica", and this name has persisted. In 1949 the Coxsackie B virus was isolated and established as an etiology of Bornholm disease.
=== Aquarium hobby === Yeast is often used by aquarium hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide (CO2) to nourish plants in planted aquaria. CO2 levels from yeast are more difficult to regulate than those from pressurized CO2 systems. However, the low cost of yeast makes it a widely used alternative.
For instance, oxycodone and diamorphine may be tested, both sedative analgesics. If such a test is not requested specifically, the more general test (in the preceding case, the test for opioids) will detect most of the drugs of a class, but the employer or physician will not have the benefit of the identity of the drug. Employment-related test results are relayed to a medical review office (MRO) where a medical physician reviews the results. If the result of the screen is negative, the MRO informs the employer that the employee has no detectable drug in the urine, typically within 24 hours. However, if the test result of the immunoassay and GC-MS are non-negative and show a concentration level of parent drug or metabolite above the established limit, the MRO contacts the employee to determine if there is any legitimate reason—such as a medical treatment or prescription. On-site instant drug testing is a more cost-efficient method of effectively detecting substance use amongst employees, as well as in rehabilitation programs to monitor patient progress. These instant tests can be used for both urine and saliva testing. Although the accuracy of such tests varies with the manufacturer, some kits have rates of accuracy correlating closely with laboratory test results.
== Enzymology == 5-HEDH is an NADPH dehydrogenase oxidoreductase enzyme. It transfers a hydrogen cation (or hydron) H+ from 5(S)-hydroxy (i.e. 5(S)-OH) residues of its fatty acid targets to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate+ (NADP+) to form 5-oxo (i.e. 5-O=) counterparts of its targets plus reduced NADP+, i.e. NADPH. The reaction (where R indicates a long chain [14 or more carbons] fatty acid) is:
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5-Oxo-ETE and 5-oxo-15(S)-hydroxy-ETE but not 5-hydroxy members of the 5-HETE family such as 5-(S)-HETE activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). This activation does not proceed through OXER1; rather, it involves the direct binding of the oxo analog to PPARγ with 5-oxo-15-(S)-hydroxy-ETE being more potent than 5-oxo-ETE in binding and activating PPARγ. The Activation of OXER1 receptor and PPARγ by the oxo analogs can have opposing effects on cell function. For example, 5-oxo-ETE-bound OXER1 stimulates whereas 5-oxo-ETE-bound PPARγ inhibits the proliferation of various types of human cancer cell lines; this results in 5-oxo-ETE and 5-oxo-15-(S)-HETE having considerably less potency than anticipated in stimulating these cancer cells to proliferate relative to the potency of 5-(S)-HETE, a relationship not closely following the potencies of these three compounds in activating OXER1. 5-Oxo-ETE relaxes pre-contracted human bronchi by a mechanism that does not appear to involve OXER1 but is otherwise undefined.
=== Early assumptions === From the 1860s through 1871, early forms of the periodic table proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev contained a gap between molybdenum (element 42) and ruthenium (element 44). In 1871, Mendeleev predicted this missing element would occupy the empty place below manganese and have similar chemical properties. Mendeleev gave it the provisional name eka-manganese (from eka, the Sanskrit word for one) because it was one place down from the known element manganese.
== Side effects == A significant side effect of insulin therapy is hypoglycemia. A meta-analysis of clinical trials published in July 2012 found 39 to 47.9 events of hypoglycemia (defined as blood glucose <56 mg/dL) per patient year, with higher rates in the more concentrated degludec formulation. Rates of nocturnal hypoglycemia ranged from 3.7 to 5.1 events per patient year. A more recent Cochrane systematic review found there was no significant differences in rates of diurnal, nocturnal hypoglycemia or any other studies outcomes when using insulin degludec as compared to insulin glargine, insulin detemir and NPH insulin for the management of type 1 diabetes in either adults or children.
=== Cellular mechanisms === DNA polymerases, used in DNA replication, have a high specificity of 104 to 106-fold in base pairing. They have proofreading abilities to correct incorrect matches, allowing 90-99.9% of mismatches to be excised and repaired. The base mismatches that go unnoticed are repaired by the DNA mismatch repair pathway, also inherent in cells. The DNA mismatch repair pathway uses exonucleases that move along the DNA strand and remove the incorrectly incorporated base in order for DNA polymerase to fill in the correct base.Exonuclease1 is involved in many DNA repair systems and moves 5' to 3' on the DNA strand.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Embalming chemicals are a variety of preservatives, sanitizers, disinfectant agents, and additives used in modern embalming to temporarily delay decomposition and restore a natural appearance for viewing a body after death. A mixture of these chemicals is known as embalming solution, and is used to preserve deceased individuals, sometimes only until the funeral, other times indefinitely. Typical embalming solution contains a mixture of formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, methanol, humectants and wetting agents, and other solvents that can be used. The formaldehyde content generally ranges from 5–35%, and the methanol content may range from 9–56%. Environmentalists sometimes have concerns about embalming because of the harmful chemicals involved and their potential interactions with the environment. Recently, more eco-friendly embalming methods have become available, including formaldehyde-free mixtures of chemicals.
=== Rock Bottom Restaurant Breweries === The company operates 16 breweries under the name Rock Bottom Restaurant & Brewery. These breweries are located in several states, with five restaurants in Colorado, five in Illinois and one restaurant each in California, Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota and Virginia. The store was renamed Rock Bottom after someone pointed out that they were "building at the bottom of the rock," which was Prudential's slogan at the time. In 2000, the Boston-based Brew Moon Enterprises Inc. filed for bankruptcy and sold four of its five restaurant-microbreweries to Rock Bottom. In 2009, the La Jolla location in San Diego won a medal at the Great American Beer Festival, and in 2012 they medaled at the World Beer Cup. Rock Bottom Restaurants won Brewpub Group Brewer of the Year award at the 2013 Great American Beer Festival (GABF).
It has been proposed that ubiquitin is the slowest-evolving protein identified to date. Ubiquitin contains seven lysine residues to which another ubiquitin can be ligated, resulting in different types of polyubiquitin chains. Chains in which each additional ubiquitin is linked to lysine 48 of the previous ubiquitin have a role in proteasome targeting, while other types of chains may be involved in other processes.
ligand An ion, functional group, or other molecule that binds to a central metal atom to form a coordination complex. Such bonding can range from covalent to ionic, but generally involves formal donation of one or more of the ligand's electron pairs to the metal.
== Stop codon recognition == The termination of translation is determined by the presence of a release factor recognizing a stop codon, which then catalyzes the release of the newly synthesized protein. There are three stop codon found within all domains of life: UGA, UAG, and UAA. Each stop codon starts with a uracil nucleotide followed by two purines (adenosine and guanine), which is essential for the molecular basis of stop codon recognition. The eRF1 protein is capable of recognizing all three stop codons, which means it must have a way to differentiate codons very efficiently. The three sites used for stop codon recognition are the YxxCxxxF, GTS loop and NIKS site. The main object of the highly specialized sites is to create extensive networks of hydrogen bonding crosslinking with the mRNA stop codon. The process is separated into two sections: recognizing the first nucleotide (uracil) and recognizing the second and third position nucleotides.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
It is a 28-residue synthetic peptide studied as an immune-modulating agent and approved as a drug in some countries. The sequence matches a naturally occurring fragment isolated from thymus tissue. It is not a hormone in the endocrine sense.